European Journal of Chemistry

Toxicological aspects of wastewater

Crossmark


Main Article Content

Frantisek Ondrasik
Sarka Krocova

Abstract

‘Alea iacta est', the die is cast, said the Roman general Gaius Julius Caesar the moment he and his troops crossed the Rubicon River. This phrase refers to a state where everything has already been decided and this decision cannot be taken back. It is at this borderline that humanity now finds itself; its survival is at stake. The basic biogenic components of the environment, such as water, air, and soil, are coming under the pressure of the modern industrial revolution. The products of this anthropogenic activity significantly affect the environment. We live in a time of rapid climate change, melting of glaciers, devastation of nature, mass extermination, or loss of animal and plant species in order to increase human living standards. Man has caused all this in one stage of human life, a generation. Humanity mismanages natural resources and clings to a lifestyle that is vain. It destroys the natural environment on which it is dependent simultaneously. An environmental disaster is coming. Will our blue planet still be livable for future generations? The study deals with one of the components of the environmental environment, not an insignificant one, that is, water. For the moment, recycled water is a neglected and underappreciated resource from the point of view of the Czech Republic and its state authorities. The cleaning process may be inadequate or unreliable, and residual biological and chemical contaminants may pose a risk to human health. This work focuses on the use of purified wastewater mainly for firefighting unit activities in relation to a possible health risk. The result of the study is a clear possible recommendation for the use of recycled wastewater from a technical, technological, and logistical point of view, but taking into account the precautionary principle.


icon graph This Abstract was viewed 451 times | icon graph Article PDF downloaded 276 times

How to Cite
(1)
Ondrasik, F.; Krocova, S. Toxicological Aspects of Wastewater. Eur. J. Chem. 2023, 14, 451-459.

Article Details

Share
Crossref - Scopus - Google - European PMC
References

[1]. Oteng-Peprah, M.; Acheampong, M. A.; deVries, N. K. Greywater characteristics, treatment systems, reuse strategies and user perception-a review. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2018, 229, 255.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-018-3909-8

[2]. Ofori, S.; Puškáčová, A.; Růžičková, I.; Wanner, J. Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: Pros and cons. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 760, 144026.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144026

[3]. Deng, S.; Yan, X.; Zhu, Q.; Liao, C. The utilization of reclaimed water: Possible risks arising from waterborne contaminants. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 254, 113020.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113020

[4]. Mukherjee, M.; Jensen, O. Making water reuse safe: A comparative analysis of the development of regulation and technology uptake in the US and Australia. Saf. Sci. 2020, 121, 5-14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.08.039

[5]. DeNicola, E.; Aburizaiza, O. S.; Siddique, A.; Siddique, A.; Khwaja, H.; Carpenter, D. O. Climate change and water scarcity: The case of Saudi Arabia. Ann. Glob. Health 2015, 81, 342-353.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.005

[6]. Sgroi, M.; Vagliasindi, F. G. A.; Roccaro, P. Feasibility, sustainability and circular economy concepts in water reuse. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 2018, 2, 20-25.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.004

[7]. Xu, M.; Bai, X.; Pei, L.; Pan, H. A research on application of water treatment technology for reclaimed water irrigation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2016, 41, 15930-15937.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.020

[8]. Angelakis, A.; Snyder, S. Wastewater treatment and reuse: Past, present, and future. Water (Basel) 2015, 7, 4887-4895.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w7094887

[9]. Xu, J.; Wei, D.; Wang, F.; Bai, C.; Du, Y. Bioassay: A useful tool for evaluating reclaimed water safety. J. Environ. Sci. (China) 2020, 88, 165-176.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.08.014

[10]. Hlavínek, P.; Mičín, J.; Prax, P. Příručka stokování a čištění; Brno : NOEL 2000, c2001, 2001, ISBN: 80-86020-30-4.

[11]. Act 254/2001 Sb.: Act on Water and amendment to certain acts (the Water Act), as amended, In:. Year 2001, No. 254. https://eagri.cz/public/web/file/10629/The_Water_Act.pdf (accessed September 3, 2023).

[12]. Becerra-Castro, C.; Lopes, A. R.; Vaz-Moreira, I.; Silva, E. F.; Manaia, C. M.; Nunes, O. C. Wastewater reuse in irrigation: A microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health. Environ. Int. 2015, 75, 117-135.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.001

[13]. Contreras, J. D.; Meza, R.; Siebe, C.; Rodríguez-Dozal, S.; López-Vidal, Y. A.; Castillo-Rojas, G.; Amieva, R. I.; Solano-Gálvez, S. G.; Mazari-Hiriart, M.; Silva-Magaña, M. A.; Vázquez-Salvador, N.; Rosas Pérez, I.; Martínez Romero, L.; Salinas Cortez, E.; Riojas-Rodríguez, H.; Eisenberg, J. N. S. Health risks from exposure to untreated wastewater used for irrigation in the Mezquital Valley, Mexico: A 25-year update. Water Res. 2017, 123, 834-850.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.06.058

[14]. Intriago, J. C.; López-Gálvez, F.; Allende, A.; Vivaldi, G. A.; Camposeo, S.; Nicolás Nicolás, E.; Alarcón, J. J.; Pedrero Salcedo, F. Agricultural reuse of municipal wastewater through an integral water reclamation management. J. Environ. Manage. 2018, 213, 135-141.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.02.011

[15]. Hanjra, M. A.; Blackwell, J.; Carr, G.; Zhang, F.; Jackson, T. M. Wastewater irrigation and environmental health: Implications for water governance and public policy. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2012, 215, 255-269.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2011.10.003

[16]. Mizyed, N. R. Challenges to treated wastewater reuse in arid and semi-arid areas. Environ. Sci. Policy 2013, 25, 186-195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.10.016

[17]. Cagno, E.; Garrone, P.; Negri, M.; Rizzuni, A. Adoption of water reuse technologies: An assessment under different regulatory and operational scenarios. J. Environ. Manage. 2022, 317, 115389.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115389

[18]. Corpuz, M. V. A.; Buonerba, A.; Vigliotta, G.; Zarra, T.; Ballesteros, F., Jr; Campiglia, P.; Belgiorno, V.; Korshin, G.; Naddeo, V. Viruses in wastewater: occurrence, abundance and detection methods. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 745, 140910.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140910

[19]. Chen, W.; Lu, S.; Jiao, W.; Wang, M.; Chang, A. C. Reclaimed water: A safe irrigation water source? Environ. Dev. 2013, 8, 74-83.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2013.04.003

[20]. Voulvoulis, N. Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 2018, 2, 32-45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.005

[21]. Chaoua, S.; Boussaa, S.; El Gharmali, A.; Boumezzough, A. Impact of irrigation with wastewater on accumulation of heavy metals in soil and crops in the region of Marrakech in Morocco. J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 2019, 18, 429-436.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2018.02.003

[22]. Ren, X.; Kou, Y.-Y.; Kim, T.; Chae, K.-J.; Ng, H. Y. Toxicity study of reclaimed water on human embryonic kidney cells. Chemosphere 2017, 189, 390-398.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.08.134

[23]. Adapa, S. Factors influencing consumption and anti-consumption of recycled water: Evidence from Australia. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 201, 624-635.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.083

[24]. Deere, D.; Cunliffe, D. A.; Davison, A.; WSAA (Association); Teunis, P.; Donlon, P. Health risk assessment of fire fighting from recycled water mains; Water Services Association of Australia, 2004, http://www.wsaa.asn.au (accessed September 3, 2023).

[25]. Zarei, M. Wastewater resources management for energy recovery from circular economy perspective. Water-energy Nexus 2020, 3, 170-185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2020.11.001

[26]. Shakir, E.; Zahraw, Z.; Al-Obaidy, A. H. M. J. Environmental and health risks associated with reuse of wastewater for irrigation. Egypt. J. Pet. 2017, 26, 95-102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.01.003

[27]. Yadav, G.; Mishra, A.; Ghosh, P.; Sindhu, R.; Vinayak, V.; Pugazhendhi, A. Technical, economic and environmental feasibility of resource recovery technologies from wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 796, 149022.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149022

[28]. Salgot, M.; Folch, M. Wastewater treatment and water reuse. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 2018, 2, 64-74.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.03.005

[29]. Li, T.; Roy, D. "Choosing not to choose": Preferences for various uses of recycled water. Ecol. Econ. 2021, 184, 106992.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.106992

[30]. Adegoke, A. A.; Amoah, I. D.; Stenström, T. A.; Verbyla, M. E.; Mihelcic, J. R. Epidemiological evidence and health risks associated with agricultural reuse of partially treated and untreated wastewater: A review. Front. Public Health 2018, 6.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00337

[31]. Ambrožová, J. Ř.; Vejmelková, D.; Čiháková, P. Technická mikrobiologie a hydrobiologie; Praha: Vysoká Škola Chemicko-Technologická Praze, 2017.

[32]. Rizzo, L.; Gernjak, W.; Krzeminski, P.; Malato, S.; McArdell, C. S.; Perez, J. A. S.; Schaar, H.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. Best available technologies and treatment trains to address current challenges in urban wastewater reuse for irrigation of crops in EU countries. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 710, 136312.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136312

[33]. Ongerth, H. J.; Ongerth, J. E. Health consequences of wastewater reuse. Annu. Rev. Public Health 1982, 3, 419-444.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pu.03.050182.002223

[34]. Baudišová, D.; Mlejnková, H. Microbial pollution of surface waters. Water management technical and economic information, TGM Water Research Institute, 2017.

[35]. LeChevallier, M. W.; Welch, N. J.; Smith, D. B. Full-scale studies of factors related to coliform regrowth in drinking water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62, 2201-2211.
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.7.2201-2211.1996

[36]. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. https://www.cdc.gov/hai/organisms/pseudomonas.html (accessed September 3, 2023).

[37]. Crone, S.; Vives-Flórez, M.; Kvich, L.; Saunders, A. M.; Malone, M.; Nicolaisen, M. H.; Martínez-García, E.; Rojas-Acosta, C.; Catalina Gomez-Puerto, M.; Calum, H.; Whiteley, M.; Kolter, R.; Bjarnsholt, T. The environmental occurrence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. APMIS 2020, 128, 220-231.
https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.13010

[38]. Iglewski, B. H. Pseudomonas; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8326/ (accessed September 3, 2023).

[39]. Mobarki, N.; Almerabi, B.; Hattan, A. Antibiotic Resistance Crisis. Int. J. Med. Dev. Ctries. 2019, 561-564.
https://doi.org/10.24911/IJMDC.51-1549060699

[40]. Tison, D. L.; Seidler, R. J. Legionella incidence and density in potable drinking water supplies. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1983, 45, 337-339.
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.45.1.337-339.1983

[41]. Coburn, B.; Grassl, G. A.; Finlay, B. B. Salmonella, the host and disease: a brief review. Immunol. Cell Biol. 2007, 85, 112-118.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.icb.7100007

[42]. Hanna, E.; Tait, P. Limitations to thermoregulation and acclimatization challenge human adaptation to global warming. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 8034-8074.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120708034

[43]. Giannella, R. A. Salmonella; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996.

[44]. Vanmetre, D. Infectious diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. In Rebhun's Diseases of Dairy Cattle; Elsevier, 2008; pp. 200-294.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-141603137-6.50009-0

[45]. Vega, R. M.; Avva, U. Pediatric Dehydration; StatPearls Publishing, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK436022/ (accessed September 3, 2023).

[46]. NV No. 401/2015 Coll: Permissible pollution. Prague: Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic, 2015.

[47]. Decree 238/2011: Swimming in the wild. Prague: Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic, 2011.

[48]. NV No. 428/2001 Coll.: Raw water quality requirements. Prague: Collection of Laws of the Czech Republic, 2001.

[49]. ČSN 75 7221: Water quality classes. Prague: Czech Standardization Institute, 1998.

[50]. ČSN 75 7143: Water quality. Water quality for irrigation; Prague: Czech Standardization Institute, 1992.

[51]. Adamec, V. Ochrana před povodněmi a ochrana obyvatelstva; Sdružení požárního a bezpečnostního inženýrství, ISBN: 8073851180, 9788073851187, 2012.

[52]. Kurrer, C.; Lipcaneanu, N. Water protection and management. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/74/water-protection-and-management (accessed May 11, 2023).

[53]. Kavan, S. Selected social impacts and measures resulting from the Covid-19 epidemic in the Czech Republic on the specific example of the South Bohemian Region. Health Soc Care Community. 2021, 29, e224-e231.
https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13272

[54]. Kavan, S. Traffic Safety as an Element of Children. In Proceedings of 26th International Scientific Conference; Education in the Czech Republic: Kaunas, Litva, 2022; pp. 699-703.

[55]. Malerova, L.; Pokorny, J. Transport of Dangerous Substance in Territory. In Proceedings of the 21th International Scientific Conference Transport Means; Lithuania: Kaunas Univ Technology Press, 2017; pp. 607-610.

Supporting Agencies

Most read articles by the same author(s)
TrendMD

Dimensions - Altmetric - scite_ - PlumX

Downloads and views

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...
License Terms

License Terms

by-nc

Copyright © 2024 by Authors. This work is published and licensed by Atlanta Publishing House LLC, Atlanta, GA, USA. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (CC BY NC) (International, v4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0). By accessing the work, you hereby accept the Terms. This is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the CC BY NC License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited without any further permission from Atlanta Publishing House LLC (European Journal of Chemistry). No use, distribution, or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Permissions for commercial use of this work beyond the scope of the License (https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms) are administered by Atlanta Publishing House LLC (European Journal of Chemistry).